|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- A HISTORICAL OUTLINE -
The Neolithic period
(6000-2600 BC) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
At some point in the remote past, his-
tory takes over from mythology, al-
though the boundaries between them
are still somewhat indistinct. The
lengthy systematic archaeological re-
search carried out on the island has
brought to light information which con-
firms the existence of life on Crete from
the 6th millenium BC (Neolithic period:
6000-2600 BC). The limited number of
finds show that neolithic man on Crete,
as in the rest of the eastern Mediterra-
nean, used caves as dwelling-places,
but also had permanent houses, that he
lived on agriculture and animal breed-
ing, buried his dead, used tools made of
stone, bone and obsidian from Melos,
and utensils made of clay.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Minoan period
(2600-1100 BC) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The British
archaeologist Sir Arthur
Evans, who excavated the palace of
Minos at Knosssos, was the one who
gave the period and the unique civilisation
which developed at that time the
mythical king's name. The Minoan
civilisation emerged, flourished and
decayed within a period of 1500 years
which has become known as the Minoan
age. It presents three phases, which
Evans named Early Minoan (2600-2000
BC), Middle Minoan (2000-1600 BC) and
Late Minoan (1600-1100 BC).
The reasons which contributed to the
development on the island of the first
important European civilisation are:
a. The important geographical position
of Crete, between three continents, and
its proximity to places where major
civilisations had already developed
(Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia,
Palestine, Asia Minor).
b. The relative facility of communica-
tion between Crete and the surround-
ing island area (Cycladic civilisation).
c. The fertile land and temperate cli-
mate of the island, which were signifi-
cant factors contributing to the pros-
perity of its inhabitants.
d. The long years of peace, as a
result of
which the Cretans were able to pursue
pacific occupations, to develop their
commerce and to cultivate the arts.
Around the third millenium, the Cretans
began to build up their navy and to
sail their ships all over the Mediterranean,
establishing contacts with their
neighbours (Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia)
and with the Cycladic islanders. These
contacts contributed to the improvement
of the Cretans' standard of living, of their
agricultural methods, and to the
perfecting of their everyday utensils, tools
and weapons. This was the dawn of the
Minoan civilisation.
By 1900 BC, Crete was at the peak of its
prosperity. This was when the first
palaces at Knossos, Phaestos, Mallia,
Archanes, Zacros and Kydonia were
built, which indicates that, in Minoan
Crete, there were kings in whose hands
all powers were concentrated.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Above: |
Reproduction
of the
"Procession" fresco from the
palace of Knossos.
Archaeological Museum of
Heraklion. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Below: |
|
Goddess of the Snakes,
a faience figurine.
Archaeological Museum of
Heraklion. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
During the
same period, shipping and
commerce flourished, colonies were
founded (Melos, Kythera) and commercial
exchanges with Cyprus, Egypt and Syria
were regular.
The sea power of the Minoans gained
great renown and this coincided with a
remarkable flourishing of the arts. The
absence of any kind of fortification on
the island is a sure indication of the
peacefulness of the Minoans' lives.
Around 1700 BC a great disaster,
perhaps the result of a catastrophic
earthquake, hit the island, which was
laid waste. However, the Minoans soon
rebuilt their palaces and homes in
grand style.
The period between 1700 and 1450 BC
is the most brilliant era of Minoan civili-
sation. Crete controlled almost the entire
Aegean area, as well as many parts of
mainland Greece.
Around 1450 BC, however, and while it
was at the climax of its power and glory.
Crete was struck a new and irreparable
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Below: |
|
The "Tavrokathapsia"
- one
of the most remarkable
frescoes decorating the
palace of Knossos. Worth
noting is the participation of
women in this contest.
Archaeological Museum of
Heraklion. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
blow. This
time it was not an earthquake,
but the violent eruption of the volcano on
the island of Thera, which caused great
devastation on the island.
This was followed by an invasion of
Achaeans who occupied Knossos and
imposed their domination. Not very
long afterwards, the palace of Knossos
was completely destroyed, probably
during a conflict between the Achaeans
of mainland Greece and those already
settled on Crete, out of which the
former emerged victorious.
After these events, Minoan civilisation
declined, surviving only within the nar-
row confines of the island itself, until
the occupation of Crete by the Dorians
around 1100 BC.
Everyday life - religion - art in Minoan
Crete
The Minoans belonged to the
Mediterannean race. They were short
of stature and had slender bodies and
dark skin, hair and eyes. The fact that
there were many palaces is evidence
that Crete was separated administra-
tively into several areas, each with its
own ruler. There were no clashes be-
tween them, which indicates the possible supremacy of the king of
Knossos, who
must have been accepted as the overlord.
The greater part of the fertile land was
exploited by the royal families, the no-
bility and officials. It was cultivated by
a limited number of slaves. Small arable |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Πάνω: |
|
Remarkable fresco
decorating the
palace of Knossos. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
plots of
land also belonged to ordi-
nary citizens who were usually
craftsmen (gunsmiths, potters,
goldsmiths) who worked in the palace
workshops. Many Minoans were sailors
and served on the numerous ships
with which the kings, chiefly, carried
out a profitable trade.
The position of women in Minoan Crete
was an important one. The Minoan
women took part in public meetings,
religious ceremonies, and even athletic
contests. Their clothes were striking
and their hair was elaborately dressed,
as we can see from the frescoes on the
palace walls, from decorations on pottery
and from statues. The Cretans
worshipped female deities related to
Nature and fertility. The goddesses
were worshipped in specially designated
sacred sites, in caves, on mountain tops
and out in the open. The sacred symbols
and animals of Minoan religion were the
bull, the snake, the double horns, the
double axe etc.
Religious ceremonies, both numerous
and grand, including sacrifices and athletic
games with bulls ('taurokathapsia'), were
organised at special times by the
priesthood, whose head was the king of
Knossos.
The Minoans particularly honoured
their dead. The tombs that have been
excavated are domed and carved
chamber tombs. However, simple gaps
in the earth, small caves and seaside
areas were often used as burial places.
The dead were placed on wooden litters
or in wooden, clay or stone sarcophagi
and funeral gifts - various useful or
well-loved objects - were placed by
their side. The Minoans initially used a
type of writing similar to Egyptian
hieroglyphics, where each letter
symbolized an animal or object.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Below: |
Tablet in Linear A. Sitia
Museum. |
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Later they used the writing known today
as "Linear A", made up of simplified
figures and, still later, after 1450 BC and
the Achaean occupation, a writing called
"Linear B".
The decipherment of Linear B, in 1952,
by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick,
proved that at that time the language
that was spoken in Knossos was the
same (Greek) language spoken by
the Achaeans.
The major creation of the Minoans,
considered the crowning glory of their
civilisation, was their art, distinguished by
its originality, elegance and vividness,
since most of its themes were
taken from everyday life and nature.
Through this art we derive information
concerning the life, the administration,
the daily activities, the religion, religious
ceremonials and burial rites of Minoan
Crete.
Architecture, in particular, flourished,
as we can see from the four large
palaces of Knossos, Phaestos, Zacros
and Mallia - and to these must be
added the royal building of Archanes,
the palace of Aghia Triada, the rich
mansions of the nobility and landowners,
as well as the simple houses of craftsmen
and labourers. The frescoes decorating
the walls of the palaces and stately
homes are worthy of particular mention.
When the palaces were rebuilt after 1700
BC, they were decorated with magnificent
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Above: |
Decorative faience wall
tiles representing facades
of houses of the Old Palace
period. Archaeological
Museum of Herakleion. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
frescoes
depicting human forms,
landscapes, animals, religious or burial
processions, athletic contests, etc. The
colours are vivid: red, brick-red, yellow,
black, blue and green dominate. Some
parts are brought into relief through the
use of plaster. The architecture of the
tombs is also noteworthy, as are the
paintings decorating the sarcophagi.
Another characteristic creation of Mi-
noan art is that of ceramics and pottery
painting. The pottery of Kamares - so
named by the archaeologists because
the first examples were found in the
Kamares cave in central Crete - is famous,
with its vivid colours and characteristic
motifs, its curves and spirals.
Finally, small masterpieces have been
brought to light of Minoan miniature
work, metalwork and goldwork.
Statuettes of faience, steatite, stone,
ivory, religious objects, pots, everyday
utensils, tools, weapons, seals, gold
jewellery, all made with love and
meticulous care for detail, show that
the Minoan craftsmen were well
acquainted with the secrets of their art
and served it with utmost skill.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Above: |
Wide- lipped Kamares
vase
from Phaestos.
Archeological Museum of
Heraklion. |
|
Right: |
Marble statue of the
goddess Aprodite holding
a bowl, from Gortyn.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
From
the Dorians to the Romans
(1100BC-330AD)
During the period between 1100 BC
and 900 BC, Dorians emigrated to
Crete from mainland Greece, occupied
the entire island and forced the
descendants of the Minoans, known as
Eteocretans (or "true Cretans") to retire
to the mountains, where they continued
to retain their customs and traditions for
several centuries. The new inhabitants of
the island brought with them, not only
new customs (burning of the dead, Greek
gods etc.), but also the use of iron.
Around 900 BC, city-states began to be
founded in Crete following the Greek
model, and life was organized, in the
Spartan way, obeying purely military
discipline. The regime was aristocratic
and the legal system very advanced.
Irrefutable evidence of this is the famous
inscription of Gortyn (6th century BC)
- a legal document which laid down the
tenets of civil law and which came to
light in 1884.
Among the arts, sculpture, metalwork
and the fashioning of small objets d' art
flourished, influenced by Oriental
styles.
Around 500 BC, constant civil wars be-
tween the city-states, invasions by
various peoples coming from the Hel-
ladic area or from Asian shores, and the
decline of commercial activity, brought
about the gradual decay of Crete.
During the Classical and Hellenistic
period (500 BC - 67 BC) Crete fell into
oblivion. It did not even participate in
the Persian or the Peloponnesian Wars
and only later did it take part in the
expedition of Alexander the Great, under
the Cretan admiral Nearchus.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
In the 2nd
century BC anarchy reigned,
as a result of poor administration and civil
unrest. The island, exhausted by inter-
nal strife, became a lair for pirates from
Cilicia, who used its shores as a base for
their predatory raids on Roman territory
This offered the Romans a pretext for
launching an attack against the island.
Though initially unsuccessful, because
the Cretans, faced with external danger,
joined forces and put up a strong
resistance, they were able to fully occupy
Crete in 67 BC under the consul Metellus.
The Roman occupation lasted until 330
AD. The Roman governor took up
residence in Gortyn, which became the
Roman capital of the island.
The Romans influenced but did not
change the Greek character of the island
in the least. The Greek language,
religion, customs and traditions, were
preserved unaltered. Latin was only
used in the administration, while the
grand Roman style of architecture left
its mark in splendid amphitheatres,
temples, odea, agoras, baths, healing
centres (Asclepieia), administrative
buildings and various other structures
with elaborate mosaics, which are still
to be found in many parts of the island.
During the Roman period, Christianity
was brought to Crete by a disciple of the
Apostle Paul, Titus, who founded the
first church.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Above: |
|
Archaeological site of
Gortyn: Church of St. Titus. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The
Byzantines - the Arabs - the
Venetians (330 AD-1669 AD)
From 330 AD Crete constituted an eparchy
(province) of the Byzantine state, with
Gortyn as its capital and with a Byzantine
general as its governor.
Until 824 AD it enjoyed a period of pros-
perity. Christianity was firmly established
and many of the early Christian basilicas
were built during this period.
In 824 the Saracens occupied the island
and set it up as an independent Arab
state with Candia (today's Herakleion)
as its capital. A strong fortress,
surrounded by a deep moat, was built
around the town. The name of the town
itself is derived from the Arabic "chandak",
meaning moat.
The Greek population was reduced to
slavery, while the Arab occupiers were
amassing untold wealth from piratical
raids into Byzantine provinces and
from the slave trade. The Byzantines
made several unsuccessful attempts to
reconquer the island. Finally,
Nicephorus Phocas, who was then a
Byzantine general and later became
emperor, landed on the island with a
strong navy (960 AD) and, after a
bloody siege which lasted several
months, succeeded in liberating Candia
(961).
In the following years and until 1204,
the island gradually progressed, the
Greek element was strengthened by
the arrival of Christians from other
Byzantine provinces and conditions became favourable for a cultural
revival, for peace, economic progress and social
stability.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
| Above: |
Prints depicting
Chania
(Benaki Museum, Athens) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
However,
this second Byzantine period
in the history of Crete was fated to be
cut short by the Fourth Crusade (1204),
which overthrew the Byzantine Empire
and installed a Latin Emperor in Con-
stantinople. He presented the island to
Boniface of Montferrat who sold it to
the Venetians for a pittance.
In 1210 the Venetians consolidated
their dominion over the island and
began to systematically establish a set-
tlement, by bringing over members of
the Venetian nobility and military. The
Cretans reacted with repeated revolu-
tions and local insurrections. During
one of these, the revolutionaries,
together with many discontented
Venetians, were victorious and declared
Crete an independent "Republic of
Saint Titus". The Venetians, however,
soon reconquered the island.
In the years that followed, the feudal
system of the Venetians fell into decay
and a new, ambitious bourgeois class
emerged, which was very actively involved
in trade. The economy thus thrived and
the arts and letters flourished.
The influence of the Italian Renaissance
was significant on icon painting,
and resulted in the creation of the
"Cretan School" - a style of iconography
which retained the Byzantine elements
but also borrowed others from Italian
art. Its representatives are Michael
Damaskinos, Theophanes, and
Domenikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco) -
in the works of his youth.
The Cretan theatre also flourished during
the last two centuris of the Venetian
period, with Georgios Hortatzis
("Erophile", "Panoria") and Vicenzo
Komaros ("The Sacrifice of Abraham"
and "Erotokritos") as its main
representatives.
Finally, there are fine examples of
Venetian architecture all over the island:
great fortifications, ports, churches,
monasteries, public buildings, squares,
are the work of Venetian architects.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Above: |
|
The town of Candia
(presend-day Heraklion)
- engraving.
(Benaki Museum, Athens) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The
period of Turkish occupation
(1669-1898)
The Turks had made several unsuccessful
attempts to invade the island during the
latter part of Venetian rule.
The most important was that of Khaired-
Din Barbarossa (1538) who met with the
resistance of the town ofCandia and was
forced to abandon the territory he had
conquered. In 1645 the Turks landed on
Crete and, within a period of two years,
had succeeded in taking almost all the
strongholds of the island, after which they
began the siege of Candia, which lasted
21 years, because of the fierce resistance
of both Greeks and Venetians.
Candia finally fell into the hands of the
Turks and only the province of Sfakia
remained free, though it had to pay a
tribute. The Cretans began a guerilla
war from the very first years of Turkish
rule and organised several unsuccessful
revolutions. In 1830 Crete was ceded to
Egypt and in 1841 came once again under
Turkish rule.
A period of bloody uprisings and revolts
of the Cretan people followed, culminating
in the revolution of 1895-96.
A year later, a unit of the Greek army
helped the revolutionaries free several
provinces. The island vibrated with the
stirring call for union with Greece and,
following the intervention of the European
Powers, Crete was declared an
autonomous Cretan state (1898) with the
Greek Prince, George, as its High
Commissioner.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Below: |
Prints depicting Crete
(Benaki Museum, Athens). |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Modem
times (1898-to the present)
Union with Greece, which the Cretan
people had so ardently longed for,
became a reality several years later, after
further struggles. The Cretan parliament
had repeatedly voted for the union of the
island with Greece. In 1905, the
revolution of Therissos, led by Eleftherios
Venizelos, took place. The revolutionaries
forced Prince George to abdicate,
abolished the post of High Commissioner
and declared union with Greece (1908).
The European Powers recalled their forces
and, after the end of the Balkan Wars
(1912-1913), Union was officially
recognized with the signing of the Treaty
of London (May 17/30 1913).
From that time on, the island shared the
history of free Greece. In 1923, after the
Greco-Turkish War and the agreement re-
garding an exchange of populations, the
Muslims in Crete were exchanged with
Greek refugees from Asia Minor.
On the 20th of May 1941, the Germans,
having overrun the Greek mainland,
launched concerted attacks by air and sea
on the island. These continued until May
28th, when the German invasion took
place. This is known as the Battle of
Crete, one of the most heroic chapters in
the history of World War II. British,
Australian and New Zealand soldiers
fought alongside their Greek comrades
together with a large part of the civilian
population. During the German
occupation, the Cretans organised a
gallant resistance struggle.
After the end of the war and the with-
drawal of the invaders, a period of recon-
struction and progress began for the
island, so that Crete today is one of the
most prosperous and vital parts of Greece
in several areas (agriculture, tourism, let-
ters)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
